How Racism and "Tropical Medicine" Built the Panama Canal.

At the turn of the 20th century, the physician William Gorgas led work that substantially mitigated mortality from mosquito-borne diseases among workers building the Panama Canal. The waterway launched the United States to political and economic superpower status by eliminating the need for risky maritime travel around the southern tip of South America, expediting exportation of US goods in international markets. Yet, as this article explains, innovations that curbed malaria and yellow fever were deeply rooted in racist foundations of capital and empire.

Wandering epizootics and zones of emergence: Constructing yellow fever endemicity in Africa.

This paper examines the distinction drawn between endemic and epidemic yellow fever in the twentieth century and the policy implications of conceptualizing yellow fever as distinct in different world regions. The history of yellow fever research in Africa reveals how particular perceptions of place undergirded evolving scientific knowledge of yellow fever epidemiology. Efforts to map yellow fever endemicity in Africa and to understand the endemic threat of "jungle" yellow fever unfolded within a colonial framework that viewed Africa and Africans as "diseased." The study explores how the notions of place embedded in endemic versus epidemic disease translated into differential prevention strategies and access to vaccines leading to highly unequal burdens of yellow fever. The history of yellow fever research in Africa is potentially instructive for a range of health threats that have historically been mapped onto places and peoples in ways that privilege differential policy pathways.

A organização da Enfermagem durante a epidemia de febre amarela em Alagoas, Brasil (1849-1889) / Organización de enfermería durante la epidemia de fiebre amarilla en Alagoas, Brasil (1849-1889) / Nursing organization during the yellow fever epidemic in Alagoas, Brazil (1849-1889)

Com a chegada da epidemia de febre amarela em Alagoas a partir de meados do século XIX houve um movimento em torno da enfermagem. Esse problema de saúde pública mobilizou o Estado para a inserção de enfermeiros e práticos em enfermagem, estes eram indivíduos que realizavam cuidados de enfermagem de forma empírica, mas que contribuíram para a organização da enfermagem alagoana, ainda que em período pré-profissional [Fragmento de texto ](AU)

La gestión sanitaria de la epidemia de fiebre amarilla de 1800 en Cádiz / The sanitary management of the yellow fever epidemic of 1800 in Cádiz

Este artículo tiene por objetivo estudiar la gestión sanitaria que hicieron las auto-ridades locales de Cádiz durante la epidemia de fiebre amarilla de 1800. Con este propósito, el trabajo analiza el desarrollo global de este brote y las consecuencias que tuvo sobre la pobla-ción gaditana, estudia las primeras medidas adoptadas y examina las disposiciones tomadas para erradicar la epidemia. Las fuentes utilizadas en esta investigación proceden del Archivo Histórico Municipal de Cádiz, el Archivo Histórico Provincial de Cádiz, el Archivo de la Catedral de Cádiz y el Archivo Histórico Nacional, así como la amplia gama de literatura médica que surgió en torno a esta enfermedad. Del análisis realizado se concluye que la alta mortalidad se puede explicar por la confusión inicial, la tardanza en la toma de medidas efectivas y el caos social generado tras la huida de gran parte de la población (AU)

Travel restrictions as a disease control measure: Lessons from yellow fever.

Travel restrictions have become a common disease control measure during the 2019 Coronavirus disease pandemic (COVID-19). Measures have ranged from quarantines when entering a country to outright travel bans. Yet more widespread travel restrictions in the form of country vaccine entry requirements have been in place for a long time for another disease - yellow fever. We track the historical underpinnings and policy developments that have led to stringent vaccine entry requirements today. We also discuss the political issues raised by health measures imposed on borders and discuss the reasons behind some clear regional differences. Almost no European countries currently have vaccine entry requirements, while at the other end of the spectrum, the majority of countries in the African region do, making vaccine entry requirements a global south phenomenon. We argue that vaccine entry requirements should be reassessed in the future as an underused public health tool, likely to become increasingly common. Vaccine entry requirements have proved effective in controlling the international spread of yellow fever but more can be done to ensure better use of this measure. Caution is needed due to the close links between public health and politics, evident since the first travel restriction in quarantines.

The Dramaturgy of Epidemics.

My essay focuses on Charles Rosenberg's provocative and enduring ideal type of epidemic drama in three acts, which he assembled from a vast knowledge of disease history that stretched from the end of the seventeenth century to his then-present pandemic, HIV/AIDS of the 1980s. Reaching back to the Plague of Athens, my essay elaborates on Rosenberg's dramaturgy by questioning whether blame, division, and collective violence were so universal or even the dominant "acts" of epidemics not only before the nineteenth century but to the present. Instead, with certain pandemics such as yellow fever in the Deep South or the Great Influenza of 1918-20, unity, mass volunteerism, and self-abnegation played leading roles. Finally, not all epidemics ended "with a whimper" as attested by the long early modern history of plague. These often concluded literally with a bang: lavish planning of festivals of thanksgiving, choreographed with processions, innumerable banners, commissions of paintings, ex-voto churches, trumpets, tambourines, artillery fire, and fireworks.

Phantom Menace: Dengue and Yellow Fever in Asia.

This article explores the entangled histories of dengue and yellow fever. It traces how historical conflations of these diseases deepened at the start of the twentieth century in the context of rising fears that yellow fever might spread to Asia. Advances in biomedicine, I suggest, reinforced notions of their kinship and generated competing theories that dengue either foreshadowed yellow fever in Asia or inoculated the region against it. This history in which the language and science of dengue and yellow fever shadowed one another offers a nonlinear narrative of scientific progress. Furthermore, as the so-called neglected tropical diseases resurge in the present, it elucidates how disease threats are read against one another. Thus, the article offers a historical context to ongoing discussions on disease emergence and pandemic preparedness.

Ciudades portuarias en lucha contra la fiebre amarilla (1800-1812) / Port cities fighting yellow fever (1800-1812)

Al tiempo que una expedición filantrópica española distribuye por América y Asia la primera vacuna que conoció la humanidad, la Península Ibérica está bajo un asedio permanente de fiebre amarilla. Una epidemia que la Medicina combate con la ayuda de sudoríficos, enemas, quina y friegas de aceite; con sahumerios de plantas, de vinagre y de azufre y con andanadas de pólvora; con el aislamiento en chozas; con detalladas instrucciones de higiene y medidas de saneamiento para las cárceles. Para la política sanitaria, los indiscutibles cimientos de su lucha contra la epidemia van a ser las cuarentenas de personas y mercancías, sin descuidar la real recomendación de "implorar la misericordia de Dios con oraciones públicas"

While a Spanish philanthropic expedition is placing the first vaccine known by the Mankind among the population of America and Asia, the Iberian Peninsula is living under yellow fever threat. An epidemic that Medicine fights with the help of sudorifics, enemas, quinine and oil rubs; with plants, vinegar or sulfur smokes and volleyfires; with isolation in huts; with hygiene instructions and sanitation measures for prisons. For the Public Health Policy, the indisputable basement of the battle against the epidemics will be placing in quarantine both, people and goods, without forgetting the royal advice, which is "to implore the help of God, with public prayers"

The Myth of Innate Racial Differences Between White and Black People's Bodies: Lessons From the 1793 Yellow Fever Epidemic in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

In this commentary, I take up the question of why beliefs in fundamental, innate racial differences between Black and White people's bodies persist in medical discourse, despite evidence to the contrary.I locate the origin of some of these beliefs in the infamous yellow fever epidemic that struck Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1793. During that early public health crisis, White physicians and lay people erroneously thought that Black people were immune to yellow fever because of their race. I then highlight the efforts of Philadelphia's Black leaders during the epidemic-namely Absalom Jones and Richard Allen-to challenge the belief in fundamental and innate differences between Blacks and Whites.I conclude by asking us to consider how the false belief that there is something peculiar about Black people's bodies has become a feature, not an aberration, in the production of medical knowledge. Indeed, I point out how medical experimentation in the 20th century and in the marketing of new drugs in the 21st century have been buttressed by this persistent yet incorrect assumption that innate racial differences exist.

The historiography of yellow fever in Latin America since 1980: the limits of presentism. / La historiografía de la fiebre amarilla en América Latina desde 1980: los límites del presentismo.

This article provides a historiographical analysis of yellow fever in Latin America. It shows that the dominant narratives approach the fever using the nature-culture dichotomy, either treating the fever as an historical actor or linking its history to power relations. This study explores some histories that associate the disease with the racialization of public health discourse, the relationship between centers and peripheries in the production of science, and US public health. It argues that this historiography fixes the nature of the fever according to contemporary medical knowledge (presentism), and suggests that new themes and perspectives might emerge from a dialogue with the history and sociology of science.

Este artículo presenta un análisis historiográfico sobre la fiebre amarilla en América Latina. Se muestra que las narrativas dominantes abordan la fiebre a partir de la dicotomía naturaleza-cultura, ya sea que la fiebre sea considerada como un actor histórico o que su historia aparezca vinculada a relaciones de poder. Se exploran algunas historias que asocian la enfermedad con la racialización del discurso de salud pública, la relación entre centros y periferias en la producción de ciencia y la salud pública norteamericana. Se argumenta que esta historiografía fija la naturaleza de la fiebre según el conocimiento médico contemporáneo (presentismo) y se sugiere que nuevos temas y perspectivas podrían emerger de un diálogo con la historia y la sociología de la ciencia.

Keeping our immigrants healthy: hygienist doctrine in the Hospedaria de Imigrantes da Ilha das Flores. / Como manter saudáveis nossos imigrantes: preceitos higienistas na constituição da Hospedaria de Imigrantes da Ilha das Flores.

The Hospedaria de Imigrantes (Immigrant Lodgings) da Ilha das Flores was established in 1883 in accordance with the hygienist thinking of the time. Immigrants were isolated on the east coast of Guanabara Bay because of the epidemics of yellow fever which returned to the Imperial capital every summer since 1849-1850. Hygienists attributed the disease to the precarious health conditions in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which enabled germs to multiply and infect the atmosphere. As physicians reinterpreted the disease in light of Pasteurian theory, new procedures were adopted to receive immigrants, changing the structure and function of the facility on Ilha das Flores.

A criação da Hospedaria de Imigrantes da Ilha das Flores, em 1883, esteve de acordo com os preceitos higienistas vigentes na época. O isolamento de imigrantes na costa leste da baía de Guanabara ocorreu em virtude das epidemias de febre amarela que retornavam à capital do Império todo verão, desde 1849-1850. Higienistas atribuíam a doença à precária condição sanitária da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, que propiciava a multiplicação do germe e infeccionava a atmosfera. Na medida em que os médicos reinterpretavam a doença à luz da teoria pasteuriana, foram sendo adotados novos procedimentos para a recepção de imigrantes, alterando a estrutura e o funcionamento da Hospedaria da Ilha das Flores.

La historiografía de la fiebre amarilla en América Latina desde 1980: los límites del presentismo / The historiography of yellow fever in Latin America since 1980: the limits of presentism

Resumen Este artículo presenta un análisis historiográfico sobre la fiebre amarilla en América Latina. Se muestra que las narrativas dominantes abordan la fiebre a partir de la dicotomía naturaleza-cultura, ya sea que la fiebre sea considerada como un actor histórico o que su historia aparezca vinculada a relaciones de poder. Se exploran algunas historias que asocian la enfermedad con la racialización del discurso de salud pública, la relación entre centros y periferias en la producción de ciencia y la salud pública norteamericana. Se argumenta que esta historiografía fija la naturaleza de la fiebre según el conocimiento médico contemporáneo (presentismo) y se sugiere que nuevos temas y perspectivas podrían emerger de un diálogo con la historia y la sociología de la ciencia.

Abstract This article provides a historiographical analysis of yellow fever in Latin America. It shows that the dominant narratives approach the fever using the nature-culture dichotomy, either treating the fever as an historical actor or linking its history to power relations. This study explores some histories that associate the disease with the racialization of public health discourse, the relationship between centers and peripheries in the production of science, and US public health. It argues that this historiography fixes the nature of the fever according to contemporary medical knowledge (presentism), and suggests that new themes and perspectives might emerge from a dialogue with the history and sociology of science.

Como manter saudáveis nossos imigrantes: preceitos higienistas na constituição da Hospedaria de Imigrantes da Ilha das Flores / Keeping our immigrants healthy: hygienist doctrine in the Hospedaria de Imigrantes da Ilha das Flores

Resumo A criação da Hospedaria de Imigrantes da Ilha das Flores, em 1883, esteve de acordo com os preceitos higienistas vigentes na época. O isolamento de imigrantes na costa leste da baía de Guanabara ocorreu em virtude das epidemias de febre amarela que retornavam à capital do Império todo verão, desde 1849-1850. Higienistas atribuíam a doença à precária condição sanitária da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, que propiciava a multiplicação do germe e infeccionava a atmosfera. Na medida em que os médicos reinterpretavam a doença à luz da teoria pasteuriana, foram sendo adotados novos procedimentos para a recepção de imigrantes, alterando a estrutura e o funcionamento da Hospedaria da Ilha das Flores.

Abstract The Hospedaria de Imigrantes (Immigrant Lodgings) da Ilha das Flores was established in 1883 in accordance with the hygienist thinking of the time. Immigrants were isolated on the east coast of Guanabara Bay because of the epidemics of yellow fever which returned to the Imperial capital every summer since 1849-1850. Hygienists attributed the disease to the precarious health conditions in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which enabled germs to multiply and infect the atmosphere. As physicians reinterpreted the disease in light of Pasteurian theory, new procedures were adopted to receive immigrants, changing the structure and function of the facility on Ilha das Flores.

Walter Reed at Camp Lazear: A Paradigm for Contemporary Clinical Research.

Throughout the time of the early settlement and development of North America, there were frequent epidemics of Yellow Fever. It is thought that ships transporting captured Africans likely conveyed both major vectors, the Aedes aegypti mosquito and the RNA Yellow Fever virus from Africa to North America. Infected ships landing in port cities resulted in epidemics that proved impossible to control with conventional interventions. Walter Reed and the U.S. Army Commission solved the mystery of the mode of Yellow Fever transmission. Reed and his co-workers not only proved the mosquito the vector of transmission but did so by constructing focused research questions leading to cleverly devised experiments that resulted in definitive answers. The results of their research not only proved that the mosquito transmitted the disease but disproved the other proposed modes of transmission. In nearly all respects, Reed's experiments are an excellent paradigm for addressing clinical research questions today.

Commerce, conflict, and contamination: yellow fever in early-independence Veracruz in the US imaginary, 1821-1848.

While commercial links between Mexico and the United States through the port city of Veracruz brought significant economic and social advantages in the early nineteenth century, public health concerns around yellow fever produced fascination and fear among US audiences (in southern and eastern port cities) from times of peace until the US invasion and occupation of Mexico (1846-1848). This article addresses the complex linkages between commerce, conflict, and contamination in reference to the port city of Veracruz and the United States in Mexico's early decades of independence. More specifically, this article addresses the concern in early nineteenth-century US periodicals around yellow fever outbreaks and potential contamination, showing the constant presence of yellow fever in Veracruz in the US imaginary.

Commerce, conflict, and contamination: yellow fever in early-independence Veracruz in the US imaginary, 1821-1848 / Comércio, conflito e contaminação: imaginário estadunidense sobre a febre amarela na recém-independente Veracruz

Abstract While commercial links between Mexico and the United States through the port city of Veracruz brought significant economic and social advantages in the early nineteenth century, public health concerns around yellow fever produced fascination and fear among US audiences (in southern and eastern port cities) from times of peace until the US invasion and occupation of Mexico (1846-1848). This article addresses the complex linkages between commerce, conflict, and contamination in reference to the port city of Veracruz and the United States in Mexico's early decades of independence. More specifically, this article addresses the concern in early nineteenth-century US periodicals around yellow fever outbreaks and potential contamination, showing the constant presence of yellow fever in Veracruz in the US imaginary.

Resumo Enquanto os vínculos comerciais entre México e EUA por meio da cidade portuária de Veracruz trouxe vantagens econômicas e sociais significativas no início do século XIX, preocupações em torno da febre amarela produziram medo e fascínio entre o público estadunidense (em cidades portuárias do sul e do leste) desde os tempos de paz até a invasão e ocupação estadunidense do México (1846-1848). O artigo aborda os complexos vínculos entre comércio, conflito e contaminação relacionados à cidade portuária de Veracruz e aos EUA nas primeiras décadas da independência do México. Especificamente, trata a preocupação com surtos de febre amarela e a potencial contaminação encontrada em periódicos estadunidenses no início do século XIX, mostrando a presença constante da febre amarela em Veracruz no imaginário estadunidense.